Testosterone is a steroid sex hormone found in both men and women. In men, testosterone is produced primarily by the Leydig (interstitial) cells of the testes when stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH). It functions to stimulate spermatogenesis, promote physical and functional maturation of spermatozoa, maintain accessory organs of the male reproductive tract, support development of secondary sexual characteristics, stimulate growth and metabolism throughout the body and influence brain development by stimulating sexual behaviors and sexual drive. In women, testosterone is produced by the ovaries (25%), adrenals (25%) and via peripheral conversion from androstenedione (50%). Testerone in women functions to maintain libido and general wellbeing. Testosterone exerts a negative feedback mechanism on pituitary release of LH and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Testosterone may be further converted to dihydrotestosterone or estradiol depending on the tissue. The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of two main mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors. Free testosterone (T) is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5α-reductase. DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than T, so that its androgenic potency is about 2.5 times that of T. The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal DNA. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects. Testosterone is used as hormone replacement or substitution of diminished or absent endogenous testosterone. Use in males: For management of congenital or acquired hypogonadism, hypogonadism associated with HIV infection, and male climacteric (andopause). Use in females: For palliative treatment of androgen-responsive, advanced, inoperable, metastatis (skeletal) carcinoma of the breast in women who are 1-5 years postmenopausal; testosterone esters may be used in combination with estrogens in the management of moderate to severe vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause in women who do not respond to adequately to estrogen therapy alone.

Progesterone is indicated in amenorrhea and abnormal uterine bleeding due to hormonal imbalance in the absence of organic pathology, such as submucous fibroids of uterine cancer. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a naturally occurring steroid that is secreted by the ovary, placenta, and adrenal gland. In the presence of adequate estrogen, progesterone transforms a proliferative endometrium into a secretory endometrium. Progesterone is necessary to increase endometrial receptivity for implantation of an embryo. Once an embryo is implanted, progesterone acts to maintain a pregnancy. Progesterone shares the pharmacological actions of the progestins. Progesterone binds to the progesterone and estrogen receptors. Target cells include the female reproductive tract, the mammary gland, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary. Once bound to the receptor, progesterone will slow the frequency of release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus and blunt the pre-ovulatory LH (luteinizing hormone) surge. In women who have adequate endogenous estrogen, progesterone transforms a proliferative endometrium into a secretory one. Progesterone is metabolized primarily by the liver largely to pregnanediols and pregnanolones. Pregnanediols and pregnanolones are conjugated in the liver to glucuronide and sulfate metabolites. Progesterone metabolites that are excreted in the bile may be deconjugated and may be further metabolized in the gut via reduction, dehydroxylation, and epimerization. Common progesterone side effects may include: drowsiness, dizziness; breast pain; mood changes; headache; constipation, diarrhea, heartburn; bloating, swelling in your hands or feet; joint pain; hot flashes; or vaginal discharge.

Neostigmine is a cholinesterase inhibitor used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis and to reverse the effects of muscle relaxants such as gallamine and tubocurarine. Neostigmine, unlike physostigmine, does not cross the blood-brain barrier. By inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, more acetylcholine is available in the synapse, therefore, more of it can bind to the fewer receptors present in myasthenia gravis and can better trigger muscular contraction. Neostigmine is used for the symptomatic treatment of myasthenia gravis by improving muscle tone.

Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas occurring naturally in Earth's atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a primary carbon source for life on Earth. It is produced by all aerobic organisms during metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids. Carbon dioxide is used in food industry as an acidity regulator and for production of carbonated soft drinks and soda water. In medicine, carbon dioxide is commonly used as an insufflation gas for minimally invasive surgery (laparoscopy, endoscopy, and arthroscopy) to enlarge and stabilize body cavities to provide better visibility of the surgical area. A mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen is used for stimulation of breathing after apnea, in anesthetic procedures to increase the depth of respiration, to facilitate blind intubations in anesthetic practice.

Cholecalciferol (/ˌkoʊləkælˈsɪfərɒl/) (vitamin D3) is one of the five forms of vitamin D. Cholecalciferol is a steroid hormone that has long been known for its important role in regulating body levels of calcium and phosphorus, in mineralization of bone, and for the assimilation of Vitamin A. The classical manifestation of vitamin D deficiency is rickets, which is seen in children and results in bony deformities including bowed long bones. Most people meet at least some of their vitamin D needs through exposure to sunlight. Ultraviolet (UV) B radiation with a wavelength of 290–320 nanometers penetrates uncovered skin and converts cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3, which in turn becomes vitamin D3. In supplements and fortified foods, vitamin D is available in two forms, D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol) that differ chemically only in their side-chain structure. Vitamin D2 is manufactured by the UV irradiation of ergosterol in yeast, and vitamin D3 is manufactured by the irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol from lanolin and the chemical conversion of cholesterol. The two forms have traditionally been regarded as equivalent based on their ability to cure rickets and, indeed, most steps involved in the metabolism and actions of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are identical. Both forms (as well as vitamin D in foods and from cutaneous synthesis) effectively raise serum 25(OH) D levels. Firm conclusions about any different effects of these two forms of vitamin D cannot be drawn. However, it appears that at nutritional doses, vitamins D2 and D3 are equivalent, but at high doses, vitamin D2 is less potent. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that exclusively and partially breastfed infants receive supplements of 400 IU/day of vitamin D shortly after birth and continue to receive these supplements until they are weaned and consume ≥1,000 mL/day of vitamin D-fortified formula or whole milk. Cholecalciferol is used in diet supplementary to treat Vitamin D Deficiency. Cholecalciferol is inactive: it is converted to its active form by two hydroxylations: the first in the liver, the second in the kidney, to form calcitriol, whose action is mediated by the vitamin D receptor, a nuclear receptor which regulates the synthesis of hundreds of enzymes and is present in virtually every cell in the body. Calcitriol increases the serum calcium concentrations by increasing GI absorption of phosphorus and calcium, increasing osteoclastic resorption, and increasing distal renal tubular reabsorption of calcium. Calcitriol appears to promote intestinal absorption of calcium through binding to the vitamin D receptor in the mucosal cytoplasm of the intestine. Subsequently, calcium is absorbed through formation of a calcium-binding protein.

Glucose is a sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. The D-isomer (D-glucose), also known as dextrose, occurs widely in nature, but the L-isomer (L-glucose) does not. Glucose is made during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight. The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction, which releases this energy, is a very important source of power for cellular respiration. Glucose is stored as a polymer, in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen, for times when the organism will need it. Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar. Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk, cane sugar, maltose, cellulose, glycogen etc. It is however, manufactured by hydrolysis of cornstarch by steaming and diluting acid. Glucose is the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing about 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. All of these processes follow from an earlier metabolic pathway known as glycolysis. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose supplies almost all the energy for the brain, so its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired. Ingested glucose is absorbed directly into the blood from the intestine and results in a rapid increase in the blood glucose level. Glucose is used to manage hypoglycemia and for intravenous feeding. Nausea may occur after ingesting glucose, but this also may be an effect of the hypoglycemia which is present just prior to ingestion. Other adverse effects include increased blood glucose, injection site leakage of fluid (extravasation), injection site inflammation, and bleeding in the brain.

Tetraamminecopper sulfate is a dark blue crystalline solid with a faint odor of ammonia. The primary hazard is the threat to the environment. Immediate steps should be taken to limit its spread to the environment. Used as a pesticide and fungicide, to print fabrics (especially in calico finishing), and to make other copper compounds.

Colchicine is an alkaloid obtained from the plant colchicum autumnale (also known as "meadow saffron"). Colchicine is an alternative medication for those unable to tolerate NSAIDs in gout. Mechanism of action of colchicine is inhibition of microtubule polymerization by binding to tubulin. Availability of tubulin is essential to mitosis, so colchicine effectively unctions as a "mitotic poison" or spindle poison.

Benzoic acid is a natural ingredient occurring in many foodstuffs and in plant extracts. Benzoic acid, its salts and esters are used as preservatives in cosmetic products, with a maximum concentration of 0.5 %. Benzoic acid and sodium benzoate are on the FDA list of substances that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Both may be used as antimicrobial agents, flavouring agents and as adjuvants with a current maximum level of 0.1% in food. Benzoic acid is a constituent of Whitfield Ointment, which is used for the treatment of fungal skin diseases such as tinea, ringworm, and athlete's foot. Adverse effect of Whitfield Ointment: occasionally, a localized mild inflammatory response occurs.

Methylene blue, also known as methylthioninium chloride, is a medication from WHO's list of essential medicines. Upon administration, methylene blue is converted to leukomethylene blue by erythrocyte methemoblobin reductase in the presence of NADPH. Leukomethylene blue than reduces methemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin, thus restoring oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Methylene blue is also used as a dye for various diagnostic procedures, for treatment of ifosfamide toxicity and for in vitro staining. Historically, it was used as a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy for topical treatment of dermatologic or mucocutaneous infections, as an antidote for cyanide poisoning, but these applications are no longer approved. Methylene blue is investigated in clinical trials for treatment of septic shock and Alzheimer's disease.