Cobalt is a transition metal, naturally ocurring in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. Depending on the considered species, cobalt has multiple industrial applications including the production of alloys and hard metal, diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Cobalt is an essential component of Vitamin B12 (hydroxycolalamin). Cobalt functions as a co-factor in enzyme catalysed reactions and is involved in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes. Cobalt salts were used to treat anemia and stimulate erythropoiesis, but was withdrawn from market since Co(II) cations are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Hovewer, Co salts are reported to be used by athletes as a doping

Cobalt is a transition metal, naturally ocurring in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. Depending on the considered species, cobalt has multiple industrial applications including the production of alloys and hard metal, diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Cobalt is an essential component of Vitamin B12 (hydroxycolalamin). Cobalt functions as a co-factor in enzyme catalysed reactions and is involved in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes. Cobalt salts were used to treat anemia and stimulate erythropoiesis, but was withdrawn from market since Co(II) cations are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Hovewer, Co salts are reported to be used by athletes as a doping

Cobalt is a transition metal, naturally ocurring in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. Depending on the considered species, cobalt has multiple industrial applications including the production of alloys and hard metal, diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Cobalt is an essential component of Vitamin B12 (hydroxycolalamin). Cobalt functions as a co-factor in enzyme catalysed reactions and is involved in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes. Cobalt salts were used to treat anemia and stimulate erythropoiesis, but was withdrawn from market since Co(II) cations are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Hovewer, Co salts are reported to be used by athletes as a doping

Cobalt is a transition metal, naturally ocurring in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. Depending on the considered species, cobalt has multiple industrial applications including the production of alloys and hard metal, diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Cobalt is an essential component of Vitamin B12 (hydroxycolalamin). Cobalt functions as a co-factor in enzyme catalysed reactions and is involved in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes. Cobalt salts were used to treat anemia and stimulate erythropoiesis, but was withdrawn from market since Co(II) cations are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Hovewer, Co salts are reported to be used by athletes as a doping

Cobalt is a transition metal, naturally ocurring in the minerals cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. Depending on the considered species, cobalt has multiple industrial applications including the production of alloys and hard metal, diamond polishing, drying agents, pigments and catalysts. Cobalt is an essential component of Vitamin B12 (hydroxycolalamin). Cobalt functions as a co-factor in enzyme catalysed reactions and is involved in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes. Cobalt salts were used to treat anemia and stimulate erythropoiesis, but was withdrawn from market since Co(II) cations are genotoxic in vitro and in vivo, and carcinogenic in rodents. Hovewer, Co salts are reported to be used by athletes as a doping

Methylparaben (E number E218) is preservative in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. It is completely absorbed through the skin or after ingestion and and it is hydrolyzed to para-hydroxybenzoic acid, and metabolites are rapidly excreted in the urine. Methylparaben is on the FDA generally regarded as safe list.

Ferrous citrate Fe 59 is indicated, by intravenous administration, to determine various parameters of the kinetics of iron metabolism, including plasma iron clearance, plasma iron turnover rate, and the utilization of iron in new red blood cells. The values of serum iron obtained from these studies provide diagnostic information in patients with anemias. Ferrous citrate Fe 59 is also useful to assess the role of the spleen in red blood cell production and destruction, and thus to help determine the advisability of splenectomy. Also, organ uptake measurements are used to measure the sites of red cell production (or lack thereof) in extramedullary erythropoiesis in myeloproliferative disorders. Iron from ferrous citrate is bound to plasma protein (transferrin) and carried to the blood-forming organs where it is utilized to form hemoglobin or is deposited in the reticuloendothelial cells of the liver and spleen. The amount of radioactive iron absorbed, transported, stored, utilized, and excreted can then be measured by the periodic collection of blood specimens and external counting.

L-threonine is an essential amino acid. Threonine is a precursor of glycine. The biochemical studies on rats proved that glycine is synthesized from threonine (through threonine dehydrogenase pathway). Threonine dehydrogenase is the key enzyme in mammals like pigs, cat, and rats for degradation of 80% threonine. In adult humans, degradation of 7–11% of threonine is done by threonine dehydrogenase. The human L-threonine 3-dehydrogenase gene (GeneID: 157739, UniProtKB: Q8IZJ6 (TDH_HUMAN)) is an expressed pseudogene having lost the splice acceptor site preceding exon 6 and codon arginine-214 (CGA) is mutated to a stop codon (TGA). A few trials demonstrated that oral L-threonine may alleviate clinical signs of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spasticity in humans. L-Threonine has recently been brought into agricultural industry for balancing the livestock feed.

Leucine is an α-amino acid used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Leucine is an essential hydrophobic amino acid. It is used in the Leucine may be used some people as a supplement to build muscle. Leucine is also found in fish, meat, and poultry. In the pharmaceutical industry, L-leucine is used for parenteral and enteral nutrition and feeding, and is also used as a flavoring product and tablet lubricant in manufacturing. Leucine is an mTOR activator. It is a dietary amino acid with the capacity to directly stimulate muscle protein synthesis. As a dietary supplement, leucine has been found to slow the degradation of muscle tissue by increasing the synthesis of muscle proteins in aged rats. Long-term leucine supplementation does not increase muscle mass or strength in healthy elderly men. Leucine potently activates the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase that regulates cell growth. Infusion of leucine into the rat brain has been shown to decrease food intake and body weight via activation of the mTOR pathway.

Lysing is an essential basic amino-acid encoded by codone AAA and AAG, and used in the biosynthesis of proteins. The daily requirement for lysine is 38 mg/kg body weight. The most rich source of lysine is fish, beef, chicken. In a clinical study lysine supplements was found to be an effective for reduction of occurrence, severity and healing time for recurrent HSV infection, however Cochrane Review concluded that the evidence is insufficient. Lysine was investigated for improving anxiety, ameliorating angina prectoris. Lysine acetylsalicylate has been used to treat pain and to detoxify the body after heroin use. Lysine clonixinate has been used for its analgesic properties for the treatment of migraine headaches and other painful conditions. However, limited clinical trials exist for these conditions.