Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48. Its most common oxidation state is +2. Cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, but a cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms. In humans, the highest concentration of cadmium is absorbed by the kidneys and up to 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled during childhood and adolescence. Cadmium is under preliminary research for its toxicity in humans, potentially contributing to risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis. The most risk of cadmium toxicity is from industrial exposure to inhalation of dust and fumes, or ingestion of soluble cadmium compounds.

Macelignan is a neuroprotective lingan isolated from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) that protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammatory degeneration. Macelignans have been shown to possess a broad range of pharmacological properties, including anti-bacterial, antiinflammatory, and anti-cancer activity. It has also been demonstrated that macelignans have anti-diabetes, hepatoprotective, and more importantly, neuroprotective properties. Apparently, the neuroprotective effect of macelignan is mediated by PPARγ activation and arginase-1 expression. Macelignan inhibits LPS induced production of NO as well and inflammatory cytokines including TNF and IL- 1β in primary cultures of microglia. Macelignan reduced serum glucose, insulin, triglycerides, free fatty acid levels, and triglycerides levels in the skeletal muscle and liver of db/db mice. Furthermore, macelignan significantly improved glucose and insulin tolerance in these mice, and without altering food intake, their body weights were slightly reduced while weights of troglitazone-treated mice increased. Macelignan increased adiponectin expression in adipose tissue and serum, whereas the expression and serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 decreased. Macelignan downregulated inflammatory gene expression in the liver and increased AMP-activated protein kinase activation in the skeletal muscle of db/db mice. Strikingly, macelignan reduced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase activation in the liver and adipose tissue of db/db mice and subsequently increased insulin signaling.

Quinone is extensively used as a chemical intermediate, a polymerization inhibitor, an oxidizing agent, a photographic chemical, a tanning agent, and a chemical reagent. Quinone (p-benzoquinone) was first produced commercially in 1919 and has since been manufactured in several European countries. Its major use is in hydroquinone production, but it is also used as a polymerization inhibitor and as an intermediate in the production of a variety of substances, including rubber accelerators and oxidizing agents. It is used in the dye, textile, chemical, tanning, and cosmetic industries. In chemical synthesis for hydroquinone and other chemicals, quinone is used as an intermediate. It is also used in the manufacturing industries and chemical laboratory associated with protein fibre, photographic film, hydrogen peroxide, and gelatin making. Occupational exposure to quinone may occur in the dye, textile, chemical, tanning, and cosmetic industries. Inhalation exposure to quinone may occur from tobacco smoke. Quinone is a major metabolite of benzene. It has been found to generate H2O2 in cells. It has been suggested that the peroxide reacts with Cu(I) to produce an active species that induces internucleosomal DNA fragmentation.

2-deoxyglucose is predominantly used as a diagnostic agent in its radiolabelled form (fluorine-18 is used as the radiolabel). Therapeutically, 2-deoxyglucose is an investigational drug that is being studied as an anticancer and antiviral agent. The exact mechanisms of action of 2-deoxyglucose is still being investigated, but it is known that in hypoxic cancer cells, 2-deoxyglucose is a glycolysis inhibitor that prevents ATP production and, ultimately, cell survival. With respect to antiviral therapy, 2-deoxyglucose was shown to be effective against herpes simplex virus by affecting the virus' ability to penetrate cells. As an experimental drug, 2-deoxyglucose was demonstrated to work as an anticonvulsant in temporal lobe epilepsy. In this condition, 2-deoxyglucose represses the expression of certain proteins that are at high levels after a seizure. Although there are several possible therapeutic indications for 2-deoxyglucose, presently there is no approved indication for 2-deoxyglucose as a therapeutic agent.

Uric acid, generated from the metabolism of purines, has proven and emerging roles in human disease. Humans produce large quantities of uric acid. Excess serum accumulation of uric acid can lead to a type of arthritis known as gout. Hyperuricemia may increase risk factors for cardiovascular disease. High serum uric acid was associated with higher risk of type 2 diabetes and other diseases.

SERINE, D- (D-serine) is a non-essential amino acid occurring in natural form as the L-isomer. It is synthesized from glycine or threonine. It is involved in the biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines and other amino acids. A considerable level of D-serine was discovered, surprisingly, in the mammalian brain in the early 1990s. Since then, D-serine has been considered to be a co-agonist of glutamate at the glycine site of NMDA receptors. D-serine plays an important role in the central nervous system as an endogenous ligand for the glycine site of glutamate N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptors. D-serine is synthetized by racemization of L-serine in most neural and non-neural cells, and modulates a variety of physiological functions in mammals. D-Serine synthesis is attributed to Serine Racemase (SR), which catalyses the synthesis of D-serine from L-serine. D-serine may play a role in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, which may be linked to NMDA receptor hypo-function. Studies in genetic and pharmacological animal models with decreased D-serine levels have shown that these animals displayed behavioural abnormalities similar to those seen in schizophrenia. Moreover, exogenous administration of D-serine and related compounds improved several phenotypes relevant to schizophrenia, which could have positive clinical implications in humans. The results of a clinical trial in Taiwanese schizophrenic patients who received D-serine as adjuvant treatment indicated that those patients who received D-serine treatment, improved positive, negative and cognitive symptoms seen in schizophrenia. In addition, this clinical trial showed that D-serine did not worsen side effects from other antipsychotics, which may be due to its selective action at the NMDA-glycine site. Therefore, D-serine could be considered as a therapeutic approach for schizophrenia, which is different from the dopaminergic approach. It has also been shown that exogenous d-serine administration can suppress appetite and alter food preference. Thus NMDA receptor and its co-agonist d-seine participate in the control of appetite and food preference, which can be used to suppress obesity. D-serine has been shown to have cognitive-enhancing properties in different brain disorders and in age-related cognitive decline. From a clinical perspective, it is important to highlight that in a recent double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study our group observed that an acute oral administration of 30 mg/kg of d-serine improved spatial learning and problem solving. D-serine may be especially useful for depression because of its acute and chronic antidepressant effects,

Phenyl sodium is organometallic compound. It is used to carry exchange reactions to produce phenylmalonic acid.