Estrone, one of the major mammalian estrogens, is an aromatized C18 steroid with a 3-hydroxyl group and a 17-ketone. It is produced in vivo from androstenedione or from testosterone via estradiol. It is produced primarily in the ovaries, placenta, and in peripheral tissues (especially adipose tissue) through conversion of adrostenedione. Estrone may be further metabolized to 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone, which may be reduced to estriol by estradiol dehydrogenase. Estrogens enter the cells of responsive tissues (e.g. female organs, breasts, hypothalamus, pituitary) where they interact with estrogen receptors. Hormone-bound estrogen receptors dimerize, translocate to the nucleus of cells and bind to estrogen response elements (ERE) of genes. Binding to ERE alters the transcription rate of affected genes. Estrogens increase the hepatic synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), thyroid-binding globulin (TBG), and other serum proteins and suppress follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release from the anterior pituitary. Estrone dl-Form is a derivative of estrone. As early as 1935 extensive research programs directed toward the total synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone were well under way. These studies have since been continued with increasing interest in laboratories all over the world. In 1942 Bachmann, Kushner and Stevenson succeeded in synthesizing a stereoisomer of the hormone,''estrone a." Using essentially the same synthetic scheme as Bachmann, et al., Anner and Miescher were able to isolate additional stereoisomers including dl-estrone (Estrone, (+-)-Isomer) . Six of the eight possible racemic forms, estrone, a-f, have now been reported. Dl-Estrone (Estrone, (+-)-Isomer) is less active than Estrone.

Glucose is a sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. The D-isomer (D-glucose), also known as dextrose, occurs widely in nature, but the L-isomer (L-glucose) does not. Glucose is made during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight. The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction, which releases this energy, is a very important source of power for cellular respiration. Glucose is stored as a polymer, in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen, for times when the organism will need it. Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar. Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk, cane sugar, maltose, cellulose, glycogen etc. It is however, manufactured by hydrolysis of cornstarch by steaming and diluting acid. Glucose is the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing about 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. All of these processes follow from an earlier metabolic pathway known as glycolysis. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose supplies almost all the energy for the brain, so its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired. Ingested glucose is absorbed directly into the blood from the intestine and results in a rapid increase in the blood glucose level. Glucose is used to manage hypoglycemia and for intravenous feeding. Nausea may occur after ingesting glucose, but this also may be an effect of the hypoglycemia which is present just prior to ingestion. Other adverse effects include increased blood glucose, injection site leakage of fluid (extravasation), injection site inflammation, and bleeding in the brain.

Phosphate is a major intracellular anion in mammals. Hydrogen phopshate is a protonated form of phosphate. In serum, phosphate exists in two forms, dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4) and its salt, mono-hydrogen phosphate (HPO4). At the physiologic pH of 7.40, the pK of H2PO4 is 6.8 and the ratio of HPO4 to H2PO4 is 4:1. Altered level of phosphate can be an indicator of various disorders, such as chronic renal failure, hypoparathyroidism, familial intermittent hyperphosphatemia, endocrine disorders, hyperthyroidism, acromegaly, juvenile hypogonadism, etc. These disorders may lead to either hyper- or hypophosphatemia, which can be caused by cellular shifts of phosphate. Patients with hypophosphatemia can be treated with dietary phosphate supplements (potassium phosphate, for example).

Calcium lactate is the salt that consists of two lactate anions for each calcium cation (Ca2+); this salt is used as a calcium supplement to treat hypocalcemia. However, as a source of free calcium, this salt is less convenient than calcium citrate. Calcium lactate inhalation powder also called as PUR118 participated in phase I clinical trials to determine whether this formulation was safe and tolerable in a population of subjects with Cystic Fibrosis (CF). PUR118 also was used in another clinical trials to evaluate its effect on ozone-induced airway Inflammation in healthy normal volunteers in case of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). The obtained results revealed that PUR118 reduced the severity of acute exacerbations in COPD and CF and had the beneficial impacts on mortality, morbidity, and quality of life in affected individuals. However, both studies were discontinued.

L-alloisoleucine (2S, 3R), a diastereomer of L-isoleucine (2S, 3S), is a normal constituent of human plasma. It was shown, that the plasma L-alloisoleucine above the cutoff value of 5 micromol/L is the most specific and most sensitive diagnostic marker for all forms of maple syrup urine disease (MSUD). The precise mechanism of L-alloisoleucine formation is unclear, but existed suggestions, that R-3-methyl-2-oxopentanoate is an immediate and inevitable byproduct of L-isoleucine transamination and that alloisoleucine is primarily formed via transamination of 3-methyl-2-oxopenanoate in vivo.

Neopterin is a byproduct of the tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) biosynthetic pathway, which requires Mg2+, Zn2+, and NADPH as cofactors. Tetrahydrobiopterin is an obligatory cofactor for phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan hydroxylases and alkylglycerol monooxygenase, and for all isoforms of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). BH4 is synthesized by multiple metabolic routes, namely the de novo, salvage and recycling pathways. The de novo via generates BH4 from guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by the concert action of guanosine triphosphate Cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH), 6-pyruvoyl Tetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS) and sepiapterin reductase. GTPCH catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 7,8-dihydroneopterin triphosphate. Then, Alkaline Phosphatases removes the phosphates to generate, 8-dihydroneopterin, which is further converted to Neopterin by non-enzymatic oxidation. Neopterin is a recognized biomarker for immune system activation. IFN-g, which is released from activated Th1 cells during the initiation of the immunological cellular response, is one of the main stimuli for neopterin formation. The source of neopterin in the central nervous system (CNS) is not well understood. The evidence available in the literature has suggested that neopterin crosses the blood-brain barrier, therefore the CSF levels may reflect the serum or plasma neopterin concentrations. Cell culture studies strongly suggest that neopterin is not an inert compound, but a cytoprotective molecule synthesized and secreted by nerve cells as a response to damage or inflammation.