L-arginine is a nonessential amino acid that may play an important role in the treatment of cardiovascular disease due to its antiatherogenic, anti-ischemic, antiplatelet, and antithrombotic properties. It has been promoted as a growth stimulant and as a treatment for erectile dysfunction in men. L-arginine is a nonessential amino acid that may play an important role in the treatment of heart disease due to its block arterial plaque buildup, blood clots, platelet clumping, and to increase blood flow through the coronary artery. L-arginine is commonly sold as a health supplement claiming to improve vascular health and treat erectile dysfunction in men. L-arginine, which is promoted as a human growth stimulant, has also been used in bodybuilding. In the 1800s, it was first isolated from animal horn.

Sorbitol is a polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. Used as a non-stimulant laxative via an oral suspension or enema. Sorbitol exerts its laxative effect by drawing water into the large intestine, thereby stimulating bowel movements. Sorbitol plays a vital step in the 'polyol pathway'. The sudden injection of extra sorbitol can ruin the equilibrium of enzymes that regulate the conversion of glucose to fructose in a process associated with the onset of diabetes and its complications. Further, the polyol pathway is involved with a complex network of metabolic activities; disruption leads to a cascade of problems (citations here, here and here) such as mitochondrial failure, cell apoptosis (cell death), and DNA fragmentation. In general, sorbitol induces cell hyperosmotic stress resulting in phosphorylation (uptake of phosphorus into cell) — an important on/off switch regulating enzymes and signaling networks.

Sorbitol is a polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. Used as a non-stimulant laxative via an oral suspension or enema. Sorbitol exerts its laxative effect by drawing water into the large intestine, thereby stimulating bowel movements. Sorbitol plays a vital step in the 'polyol pathway'. The sudden injection of extra sorbitol can ruin the equilibrium of enzymes that regulate the conversion of glucose to fructose in a process associated with the onset of diabetes and its complications. Further, the polyol pathway is involved with a complex network of metabolic activities; disruption leads to a cascade of problems (citations here, here and here) such as mitochondrial failure, cell apoptosis (cell death), and DNA fragmentation. In general, sorbitol induces cell hyperosmotic stress resulting in phosphorylation (uptake of phosphorus into cell) — an important on/off switch regulating enzymes and signaling networks.

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is part of the vitamin B group. Riboflavin 5’-phosphate is the precursor of two coenzymes, flavin adenine dinucleotide and flavin mononucleotide, which catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions involved in a number of metabolic pathways. FAD and riboflavin phosphate in foods are hydrolyzed in the intestinal lumen by nucleotide diphosphatase and a variety of nonspecific phosphatases to yield free riboflavin, which is absorbed in the upper small intestines by a sodium-dependent saturable mechanism. Riboflavin has been used in several clinical and therapeutic situations. For over 30 years, riboflavin supplements have been used as part of the phototherapy treatment of neonatal jaundice. Corneal ectasia is a progressive thinning of the cornea; the most common form of this condition is keratoconus. Collagen cross-linking is a non-surgical treatment intended to slow progression of corneal ectasia by strengthening corneal tissue. The standard protocol calls for application directly to the eye of a 0.1% riboflavin solution for 30 minutes followed by 30 minutes of ultraviolet-A irradiation with a wavelength of 370 nm and power of 3 mW/cm2. Under the conditions used for corneal collagen cross-linking, riboflavin 5‘-phosphate functions as a photo enhancer and generates singlet oxygen which is responsible for the cross-linking.

Cysteine (cysteine hydrochloride is a salt) is a thiol-containing amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. Cysteine is synthesized from methionine via the trans-sulfuration pathway in the adult, but newborn infants lack the enzyme, cystathionase, necessary to effect this conversion. Therefore, cysteine is generally considered to be an essential amino acid in infants.

Hydrocortisone is the main glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex. Its synthetic counterpart is used, either as an injection or topically, in the treatment of inflammation, allergy, collagen diseases, asthma, adrenocortical deficiency, shock, and some neoplastic conditions. Topical hydrocortisone is used for its anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive properties to treat inflammation due to corticosteroid-responsive dermatoses. Hydrocortisone binds to the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes. The anti-inflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Specifically glucocorticoids induce lipocortin-1 (annexin-1) synthesis, which then binds to cell membranes preventing the phospholipase A2 from coming into contact with its substrate arachidonic acid. This leads to diminished eicosanoid production. The cyclooxygenase (both COX-1 and COX-2) expression is also suppressed, potentiating the effect. In other words, the two main products in inflammation Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes are inhibited by the action of Glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids also stimulate the lipocortin-1 escaping to the extracellular space, where it binds to the leukocyte membrane receptors and inhibits various inflammatory events: epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst and the release of various inflammatory mediators (lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, tissue plasminogen activator, chemokines etc.) from neutrophils, macrophages and mastocytes. Additionally the immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding. For the relief of the inflammatory and pruritic manifestations of corticosteroid-responsive dermatoses. Also used to treat endocrine (hormonal) disorders (adrenal insufficiency, Addisons disease). Hydrocortisone is also used to treat many immune and allergic disorders, such as arthritis, lupus, severe psoriasis, severe asthma, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn's disease.

Acetaminophen, also known as paracetamol, is commonly used for its analgesic and antipyretic effects. Its therapeutic effects are similar to salicylates, but it lacks anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, and gastric ulcerative effects. Acetaminophen (USAN) or Paracetamol (INN) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. It is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu medications and many prescription analgesics. It is extremely safe in standard doses, but because of its wide availability, deliberate or accidental overdoses are not uncommon. Acetaminophen, unlike other common analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen, has no anti-inflammatory properties or effects on platelet function, and it is not a member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs. At therapeutic doses, acetaminophen does not irritate the lining of the stomach nor affect blood coagulation, kidney function, or the fetal ductus arteriosus (as NSAIDs can). Acetaminophen is thought to act primarily in the CNS, increasing the pain threshold by inhibiting both isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3 enzymes involved in prostaglandin (PG) synthesis. Unlike NSAIDs, acetaminophen does not inhibit cyclooxygenase in peripheral tissues and, thus, has no peripheral anti-inflammatory affects. Acetaminophen indirectly blocks COX, and that this blockade is ineffective in the presence of peroxides. This might explain why acetaminophen is effective in the central nervous system and in endothelial cells but not in platelets and immune cells, which have high levels of peroxides. Studies also report data suggesting that acetaminophen selectively blocks a variant of the COX enzyme that is different from the known variants COX-1 and COX-2. This enzyme is now referred to as COX-3. Its exact mechanism of action is still poorly understood, but future research may provide further insight into how it works. The antipyretic properties of acetaminophen are likely due to direct effects on the heat-regulating centers of the hypothalamus resulting in peripheral vasodilation, sweating and hence heat dissipation.

Norepinephrine (l-arterenol/Levarterenol or l-norepinephrine) is a sympathomimetic catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. As a stress hormone, norepinephrine affects parts of the brain where attention and responding actions are controlled. Along with epinephrine, norepinephrine also underlies the fight-or-flight response, directly increasing heart rate, triggering the release of glucose from energy stores, and increasing blood flow to skeletal muscle. Norepinephrine can also suppress neuroinflammation when released diffusely in the brain from the locus ceruleus. Norepinephrine may be used for blood pressure control in certain acute hypotensive states (e.g., pheochromocytomectomy, sympathectomy, poliomyelitis, spinal anesthesia, myocardial infarction, septicemia, blood transfusion, and drug reactions) and as an adjunct in the treatment of cardiac arrest and profound hypotension. Norepinephrine performs its action by being released into the synaptic cleft, where it acts on adrenergic receptors, followed by the signal termination, either by degradation of norepinephrine, or by uptake by surrounding cells. Prolonged administration of any potent vasopressor may result in plasma volume depletion which should be continuously corrected by appropriate fluid and electrolyte replacement therapy.If plasma volumes are not corrected, hypotension may recur when Norepinephrine is discontinued, or blood pressure may be maintained at the risk of severe peripheral and visceral vasoconstriction (e.g., decreased renal perfusion)with diminution in blood flow and tissue perfusion with subsequent tissue hypoxia and lactic acidosis and possible ischemic injury. Gangrene of extremities has been rarely reported. Overdoses or conventional doses in hypersensitive persons (e.g., hyperthyroid patients) cause severe hypertension with violent headache, photophobia, stabbing retrosternal pain, pallor, intense sweating, and vomiting.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a water-soluble vitamin. It occurs as a white or slightly yellow crystal or powder with a slight acidic taste. Ascorbic acid is an electron donor, and this property accounts for all its known functions. As an electron donor, ascorbic acid is a potent water-soluble antioxidant in humans. Ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant under physiologic conditions exhibiting a cross over role as a pro-oxidant in pathological conditions. Oxidized ascorbic acid (dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) directly inhibits IkappaBalpha kinase beta (IKKbeta) and IKKalpha enzymatic activity in vitro, whereas ascorbic acid did not have this effect. These findings define a function for vitamin C in signal transduction other than as an antioxidant and mechanistically illuminate how vitamin C down-modulates NF-kappaB signaling. Vitamin C is recommended for the prevention and treatment of scurvy. Its parenteral administration is desirable for patients with an acute deficiency or for those whose absorption of orally ingested ascorbic acid (vitamin c) is uncertain. Symptoms of mild deficiency may include faulty bone and tooth development, gingivitis, bleeding gums, and loosened teeth. Febrile states, chronic illness, and infection (pneumonia, whooping cough, tuberculosis, diphtheria, sinusitis, rheumatic fever, etc.) increase the need for ascorbic acid (vitamin c). Hemovascular disorders, burns, delayed fracture and wound healing are indications for an increase in the daily intake.

Estradiol benzoate is the synthetic benzoate ester of estradiol, a steroid sex hormone vital to the maintenance of fertility and secondary sexual characteristics in females. As the primary, most potent estrogen hormone produced by the ovaries, estradiol binds to and activates specific nuclear receptors. This agent exhibits mild anabolic and metabolic properties, and increases blood coagulability. Although estradiol benzoate is not approved by the FDA for use in humans in the United States, it is approved for veterinary use as a subdermal implant both alone (CELERIN®) and in combination with the anabolic steroid trenbolone acetate (SYNOVEX® Plus).