L-threonine is an essential amino acid. Threonine is a precursor of glycine. The biochemical studies on rats proved that glycine is synthesized from threonine (through threonine dehydrogenase pathway). Threonine dehydrogenase is the key enzyme in mammals like pigs, cat, and rats for degradation of 80% threonine. In adult humans, degradation of 7–11% of threonine is done by threonine dehydrogenase. The human L-threonine 3-dehydrogenase gene (GeneID: 157739, UniProtKB: Q8IZJ6 (TDH_HUMAN)) is an expressed pseudogene having lost the splice acceptor site preceding exon 6 and codon arginine-214 (CGA) is mutated to a stop codon (TGA). A few trials demonstrated that oral L-threonine may alleviate clinical signs of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spasticity in humans. L-Threonine has recently been brought into agricultural industry for balancing the livestock feed.

Leucine is an α-amino acid used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Leucine is an essential hydrophobic amino acid. It is used in the Leucine may be used some people as a supplement to build muscle. Leucine is also found in fish, meat, and poultry. In the pharmaceutical industry, L-leucine is used for parenteral and enteral nutrition and feeding, and is also used as a flavoring product and tablet lubricant in manufacturing. Leucine is an mTOR activator. It is a dietary amino acid with the capacity to directly stimulate muscle protein synthesis. As a dietary supplement, leucine has been found to slow the degradation of muscle tissue by increasing the synthesis of muscle proteins in aged rats. Long-term leucine supplementation does not increase muscle mass or strength in healthy elderly men. Leucine potently activates the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase that regulates cell growth. Infusion of leucine into the rat brain has been shown to decrease food intake and body weight via activation of the mTOR pathway.

Maleic acid monosodium salt. Used in water soluble polymers preparation.

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG), an endogenous intermediary metabolite in the Krebs cycle, is a molecule involved in multiple metabolic and cellular pathways. As an intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, AKG is essential for the oxidation of fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose. Extracellular AKG is a significant source of energy for cells of the gastrointestinal tract. As a precursor for the synthesis of glutamate and glutamine in multiple tissues (including liver, skeletal muscle, heart, brain, and white adipose tissue), AKG bridges carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism for both conservation of amino acids and ammonia detoxification. Additionally, emerging evidence shows that AKG is a regulator of gene expression and cell signaling pathways (including the mammalian target of rapamycin and AMPactivated protein kinase). Thus, AKG is an attractive dietary supplement in animal and human nutrition to improve cellular energy status, immunity, and health.AKG can decrease protein catabolism and increase protein synthesis to enhance bone tissue formation in the skeletal muscles and can be used in clinical applications. In addition to these health benefits, a recent study has shown that AKG can extend the lifespan of adult Caenorhabditis elegans by inhibiting ATP synthase and TOR. Orally, AKG is used for kidney disease, gastrointestinal disorders, bacterial overgrowth, intestinal toxemia, liver dysfunction, and chronic candidiasis. It is also used for improving peak athletic performance, improving amino acid metabolism in hemodialysis patients, and cataracts. Intravenously, AKG is used for preventing ischemic injury during heart surgery, improving renal blood flow after heart surgery, and preventing muscle protein depletion after surgery or trauma.